The following column’s subject is a person closest to my heart, therefore it is a particular pleasure for me to introduce her.
Márti Timár entered the world of tattooing 15 years ago as an interpreter for the Red Lion Tattoo Circus. Since then, she has become my partner and advisor in matters related to the company and Inkcontrol, and she also supports ambitious colleagues seeking professional development as a tattooist coach. Her precise observations are sharpened by her studies as a psychology student.
The following text is an excerpt from her thesis, which we wish to offer as a much-needed contribution to the treasury of the Hungarian tattoo profession.
Please welcome the first part of the Tattoo-logy series with love.
Otte
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TATTOOLOGY
Author: Márta Timár
One of the fundamental questions of psychology concerns the motivations behind human behavior and the forces that shape it. Why do we invest enormous amounts of energy into certain actions and goals, while not into others? No general statement about human thinking or behavior can be made without considering motivation. Motivation, in summary, can be described as the complex phenomenon that drives our actions.
The word tattoo originates from the Tahitian word “tatau”, meaning “to mark.” According to Tahitian mythology, the creator god Ta’aroa’s two sons taught the art of tattooing to humans as a sacred artistic practice. Tattoos were applied to the skin by highly trained shamans (tahua) as part of religious rituals.
Body decoration and tattooing can confidently be considered ancient practices. Historical and archaeological evidence shows that tattooing was practiced worldwide in ancient times, and with the exception of Antarctica, indigenous cultures on every continent regarded tattooing as a defining cultural element.
In some cultures, women received tattoos to enhance fertility, facilitate a safe passage to the afterlife, represent women’s spiritual power, and express equality with men.
Depending on the culture and historical period, indigenous tattoo traditions marked rites of passage into adulthood, reflected social status, military achievements, lineage, and group belonging, and were also believed to influence fertility-related forces.
In Tahiti and Polynesia, warrior members of the aori received tattoos upon achieving the sixth rank of their warrior order, symbolizing full entitlement.
The practice most likely already existed in the Upper Paleolithic period. One of the earliest evidences appears on the Venus of Willendorf, where markings resembling tattoos can be identified. Julius Lips suggested that tattooing evolved from body painting. Archaeological findings indicate that humans painted their deceased or their bones with red ochre before burial. The use of clay stamps—already known during the Ice Age—to imprint patterns onto skin supports this theory. These stamps are still found among tribes of the Gran Chaco region today.
The earliest skin puncturing methods were aided by technological tools such as stone, bone, or bamboo. To enhance the aesthetic relief of scars during early tattooing, ash, soil, saltpeter, resin, or soot were rubbed into wounds to induce sufficient inflammation.
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Arquel Baganet, a multifaceted artist, reinforced common sewing needles with a rotating device, marking a significant technological advancement. Since Samuel L. Riley’s invention of the electric tattoo machine, the process has become not only faster but less painful, as inflammation can now be largely avoided.
In modern Indian practices, tattooing is replaced by the application of red dots. Vertical scarifications visible on ancient statues and reliefs—such as African Benin bronzes—clearly refer to tattooing.
Tattooing remains part of daily life among Oceanian tribes. The Obiugors and Spartans also wore scarification marks. In the National Museum of Athens, a 13th-century BCE painted female gypsum head bears dot patterns thought to represent tattooing or tattoo-like body painting.
Clear evidence of tattooing can be found on clay idols from Uruk and Eridu (4th millennium BCE), on ceramic vessels from Hassuna (5th millennium BCE), and on a vase housed in the British Museum showing unmistakable tattoo marks on a figure’s wrist and leg.
Before the 4th century BCE, wrist tattoos were discovered on mummies from the Altai region. Joan Fletcher suggests that ancient Egyptian women’s tattoos functioned as protective amulets during pregnancy and childbirth.
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To better understand the temporal depth of tattooing, archaeological remains are the most reliable sources. Tattooed mummified human remains have been discovered across the globe—from the Americas, Greenland, Siberia, Western China, the Philippines, Africa, Europe, Mexico, and the Andes. Many early finds were collected prior to the establishment of modern archaeological standards and therefore lack proper documentation.
These well-preserved remains provide extraordinary insight into ancient peoples’ lives, health, environments, deaths, and tattooing practices. Ötzi the Iceman, discovered through radiocarbon dating to have died around 3250 BCE, is currently considered the oldest known tattooed human. Earlier, Chilean Chinchorro mummies were thought to be the oldest, but they date at least 500 years later than Ötzi.
Thus, tattooing was already present in various societies in very early periods.
The ancient nomads of the Gorny Altai region (late 1st millennium BCE) are renowned for preserving organic materials due to permafrost. Their artistic heritage—including wood carvings, textiles, clothing, saddles, harnesses, and carpets—has survived remarkably well. Their tattoo art is exceptional; some designs are visible to the naked eye, while others require special techniques to detect.
From five burials, seven mummified bodies were recovered, all bearing animal motifs. The Pazyryk Scythian tattoos reveal not only artistic expression but also metaphorical human–animal relationships and a complex symbolic system. These tattoos likely date to the 2nd–3rd centuries BCE.
By analyzing iconography, analogies, and monuments, tattoos can help reconstruct chronological relationships and historical events, such as ancient nomadic wars or Macedonian expansion.
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The placement and typology of tattoos on preserved mummies are especially useful for understanding tattoo functions in prehistory. Current interpretations suggest that tattooing served both ritualistic and therapeutic purposes. Ethnographic and paleopathological data indicate that many tattoos were part of healing practices. Mapping these tattoos helps clarify early healing and “spiritual medical” systems, as traditional medicine was deeply intertwined with nature and belief systems.
From birth to death, our needs and instincts accompany us unchanged. While motivations may vary in adulthood, their core meaning remains stable. Early philosophers believed humans were driven by pleasure-seeking. Epicurus held that avoiding pain was humanity’s central goal.
In modern psychology, pain avoidance remains a dominant principle. Tattooing, viewed as a healing ritual, helps explain why individuals accepted pain during these procedures. Tattooing as “medicine” was a vital tool for navigating the world, as people believed it influenced supernatural forces, supported control over them, and helped maintain balance and regeneration.
According to the assumption of sociologist, ethnographer, and tattoo enthusiast D. Angus Vail, those individuals who decorate large areas of their bodies with aesthetically high-value tattoo designs become part of the tattoo community as a result of interaction with artists. If certain tattoos are evaluated as aesthetically significant, academic interest may draw closer to the world of tattooing.
Researchers have also drawn attention to the prosocial conceptualization of tattooing, revealing that tattoos may contribute constructively to increased self-esteem and positive social interactions.
Ethnographic researchers claim that tattooing can be beneficial in many respects and may stimulate social life. This growing paradigmatic shift is also perceptible in the scientific approach to tattooing. Alongside the rejection of the deviance-based perspective that dominated for nearly a century, the artistic interpretation of tattooing (Body Art) and the examination of its positive implications are becoming increasingly prominent.
In one study examining the relationship between deviance and tattooing, no significant differences were found between tattooed and non-tattooed participants across seven different measures of deviant behavior.
At the same time, several studies have noted that tattooed individuals tend to score higher on extraversion and its subdimensions (e.g., openness).
Fredrick and Bradley reported that tattooed participants showed significantly lower levels of depression than non-tattooed or pierced participants. Forbes, comparing tattooed/pierced individuals with non-tattooed/non-pierced individuals along the Big Five personality traits, found no significant differences.
The appearance of tattoos in popular culture has altered public perceptions of tattooed individuals. According to Horne and colleagues, 60% of men in their study found tattooed women attractive, while 71% of women found tattooed men similarly attractive.
As a result of tattoos becoming more prominent and societal attitudes shifting, tattoos are now widely regarded as symbolic expressions of identity.
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In some women who chose tattooing following sexual abuse or trauma, tattoo designs function as a form of epidermal self-healing. Another study supports this interpretation, finding strong correlations between experiences of physical, psychological, or sexual abuse and later engagement in body modification.
Another study reported that participants experienced significantly reduced anxiety levels and dissatisfaction after completing their tattoos. Three weeks after receiving their tattoos, participants showed markedly higher scores in self-esteem, individuality, and body image satisfaction.
Tattooing may provide a new sense of self-confidence and control previously unexperienced by tattooed individuals. It also helps them navigate uncertain or contradictory life periods by offering a sense of permanence.
Numerous other studies have demonstrated that tattooing strengthens self-acceptance and self-esteem. In populations struggling with eating disorders, tattooing was found to function as a protective factor against self-harm.
Regarding gender distribution, earlier studies suggested parity between men and women in tattoo prevalence, while more recent research indicates a higher proportion among women.
Studies investigating personality differences between tattooed and non-tattooed individuals are flourishing today; however, such research often suffers from methodological limitations. Samples frequently rely heavily on university students, rendering findings non-representative of the general population, especially with respect to socioeconomic status or demographic distribution.
Another frequent criticism of such studies is the tendency to treat lightly tattooed and heavily tattooed individuals as a homogeneous group, ignoring potential differences in personality traits and attitudes between these subgroups.
The decline of religiosity in Western civilization may have contributed to the wider spread and changing perception of tattoos. Nevertheless, tattoos continue to occupy a traditionally spiritual place in society and therefore remain inseparably linked to religion.
(To be continued)
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TATTOOLOGY
Author: Márta Timár
Previous studies have shown that in European countries approximately 15–25% of participants have tattoos, and that individuals can be categorized according to their motivational profiles. Among tattooed university students, a stronger need for individuality was observed; among tattooed participants from German-speaking regions, higher scores were measured in extraversion, sensation-seeking, and need for uniqueness.
The aim of the present study was to explore the relationships between personality dimensions, self-efficacy, and tattooing. Data were collected using online questionnaires from 324 Hungarian-speaking participants residing in Hungary. Our findings may help predict relationships between personality dimensions and tattooing propensity.
Keywords: tattooing, motivation, personality, extraversion, self-efficacy
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Motivation and Self-Efficacy
The word motivation derives from the Latin “movere”, meaning “to move.” Emotions such as physical pain can function as action-directing forces, preparing individuals for certain behaviors.
We distinguish between primary (survival/self-preservation) and secondary (social) motivations. The former include hunger and thirst, while the latter arise from social and reproductive needs.
Rewards possess motivational power, as demonstrated by clinical experiments. Unexpected praise or rewards have been shown to exert a motivating effect even in adults. Receiving an unexpected reward (e.g., praise for good behavior) serves as positive behavioral reinforcement and increases the sense of social acceptance.
Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to successfully complete a task. It is one of the most expressive motivational predictors of how a person will perform when facing challenges.
When self-confidence is combined with knowledge acquired in a specific domain, self-efficacy emerges. Conversely, failure attributed to lack of ability tends to weaken perceived self-efficacy, while successful adaptation to changing circumstances strengthens it.
Self-efficacy influences personal goals, perseverance, emotional reactions, and coping mechanisms. Extremely high self-efficacy may lead to excessive risk-taking, overconfidence, and dysfunctional persistence. Repeated failure, however, may recalibrate self-efficacy to a more realistic level.
According to Self-Determination Theory, humans possess three innate psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. When these needs are satisfied, individuals are motivated, productive, and happy. Humans are innately driven to be autonomous, self-directed, and connected to others.
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Research Design
Our research primarily sought to answer how self-efficacy relates to tattooing and what differences exist between tattooed and non-tattooed individuals. We also examined whether differences appear between these groups in terms of conscientiousness.
Tattooing was not approached through traditional deviance-based stereotypes; instead, we examined associations such as trauma processing, coping, self-acceptance, and emotional stability.
A total of 324 individuals participated, the majority being women (72.2%). Most participants lived in urban environments (45.4%) and held secondary-level education (54.3%).
Participants were categorized into three occupational groups: tattoo artists, physical laborers, and intellectual workers.
Forty-five tattoo artists participated in the study, most of whom performed intellectual work (49.1%).
The youngest participant was 18 years old, the oldest 52, with a mean age of 32.15 years.
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Personality Dimensions (Big Five)
1. Conscientiousness
“I would not take advantage of someone simply to gain a favor.”
Individuals scoring high in conscientiousness tend to avoid manipulation for personal gain, feel little temptation to violate rules, and show low interest in wealth or luxury. Those with very low scores are more likely to bend rules for personal benefit and are motivated by material gain, often displaying inflated self-esteem.
2. Emotionality
“If something bad happens to me, I need someone to comfort me.”
High scorers react to stress with stronger fear and anxiety and seek emotional support. Low scorers are less disturbed by physical injury or stress, worry less, are less preoccupied with others’ problems, and rely less on emotional dependence.
3. Extraversion
“I am generally cheerful and optimistic.”
High scorers perceive themselves as confident, enjoy social gatherings, and often assume leadership roles. Low scorers feel uncomfortable when in the spotlight, show less interest in social activities, and are less energetic and optimistic.
4. Agreeableness
“I do not speak negatively about others, even when they make mistakes.”
High scorers are forgiving, cooperative, and accepting. Low scorers react with anger, are critical of others’ weaknesses, and rigidly adhere to their own viewpoints.
5. Conscientiousness (Work-related)
“At work, I strive to be precise even when it takes more time.”
High scorers organize their time and environment effectively, work with discipline, and aim for precision and perfection. Low scorers tend to avoid structured environments, difficult tasks, and long-term goals, often making impulsive decisions.
6. Openness
“I am interested in the history and political characteristics of other countries.”
High scorers are drawn to art and nature, are creative, imaginative, and curious. Low scorers show limited interest in artistic creation, prefer routine, and avoid creative endeavors.
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Tattoo Quantity and Personality
Participants were grouped according to tattoo quantity:
• 22 participants had 1 tattoo (6.8%)
• 99 participants had 2–4 tattoos (30.6%)
• 104 participants had 5–10 tattoos (32.1%)
• 99 participants had more than 10 tattoos (30.6%)
Our first hypothesis—that extraversion correlates with tattoo quantity—was not supported. No significant relationship was found between extraversion and tattoo count.
However, a weak positive correlation was observed between tattoo quantity and self-efficacy: individuals with more tattoos exhibited higher self-efficacy scores.
Those with more than 10 tattoos showed significantly higher self-efficacy than those with only 2–4 tattoos. No significant difference was found between individuals with more than 10 tattoos and those with only one tattoo.
Tattooed individuals generally have more tattoos than the average population. Based on our results, tattooed individuals are more open to experiences than non-tattooed individuals. We believe that higher openness correlates with increased self-efficacy, as creativity and interest in unconventional ideas are characteristic of them.
Our third hypothesis was not supported; contrary to some previous studies, tattooed individuals in our sample demonstrated higher conscientiousness than non-tattooed individuals. This may be influenced by occupational demands, as tattooing requires precision, discipline, and careful consideration.
Additionally, we found a relationship between place of residence and tattoo quantity: the larger the city, the higher the number of tattoos. This likely reflects greater social acceptance and accessibility in urban environments.
Forbes (2001) suggests that body modification has become part of youth culture, particularly in urbanized regions. Previous studies found no significant differences between tattooed individuals and control groups in honesty, emotional stability, or agreeableness. Our study similarly found no significant differences in these dimensions.